Enlightenment+Scientific+Revolution

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[|European Enlightenment Glossary]

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 * Scientific Revolution:** This is a time in which the philosophes made advances in the field of science. They studied natural philosophy, the study of the nature of the universe and how it functions, and made significant finds in physics, astronomy, and anatomy. Well-known members of the philosophes during this time were Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo.


 * Copernicus, heliocentric view- the idea that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. before this, the common theory was that the earth stayed still, after all, that is what aristotle said. polish scientist, Nicolas Copernicus, realized that this theory is inaccurate. that is where the Heliocentric view comes in.**


 * Tycho Brahe-** Very adamant in astrology; with the support of the king of Denmark, he built the most sophisticated observatory of his time. Though he collected 20 years' worth of data about the stars, he was never very good at math and died before he could piece it all together. Detailed the new star observed in 1572. Rudolph II of the Holy Roman empire gives him permission to build an observatory in Prague. Here he created the Rudolfine Tablets that tabled all of the planetary movements.


 * Johannes Kepler-** An assistant to Tycho Brahe, Kepler continued his works after his death. As a gifted mathematical mind, he was able to piece it together and prove scientifically the findings of Copernicus. He also proved that the orbital revolutions around the sun are elliptical, not round.


 * 3 Laws of planetary motion-** 3 laws regarding the motion of the planets, written by Kepler. 1 Orbits in planets around the sun are elliptical not circular. 2 Planets don't move in a uniform speed in orbit, they travel faster when closer to the sun. 3 The time it takes for a planet to make an orbit is directly related to its distance from the sun. When his laws were published they were viewed as radical and not accepted by the general public.


 * Galileo-** Physicist of the day, Galileo made massive breakthroughs in his field of work. He came up with the Law of inertia, perfected the experimental method, and improved upon the telescope. Using the telescope he discovered 4 moons of Jupiter, killing Aristotle's theory of spheres, as well as discovering all of the craters on the surface of the moon.His most known piece of writing is //The dialogue on the two chief systems of the world,// which made him get be dragged in front of the Roman Inquisition and forced to recant his work. All of the intellectuals in Europe though believed that he was correct.


 * laws of inertia-** Formulated by Galileo, it states that motion is the natural state of an object and that its is only stopped when acted upon by an outside force. This is wrong by today's standards, we know now thanks to Newton that an object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an outside force. was very important in galileo's astronomy. he used this law to explain why we dont feel the earths movement, also why the objects on the earth move with the earth.

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 * telescope-**An instrument, improved upon by Galileo, in order to magnify the stars to get a better idea of the universe. It works on the basis of refraction and typically used 2 or more lenses. Through the use of this device scientists figured out the workings of the universe, arguing the accepted truths of the day.


 * Francis Bacon-** He was English politician and writer was the greatest early supporter of the new experimental method.Bacon argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research and set out to formalize the empirical method into the theory of inductive reasoning, also known as empiricism.


 * empiricism-** This is the theory of reasoning that calls for evidence through observation and experiment instead of speculation, as was the usual before this enlightenment.


 * inductive method-** Created by Francis Bacon- You begin with a large amount of information which you narrow and bring down to one cause/theory. You never assume anything with this method, and everything must be backed up with evidence.

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 * Rene Descartes-** Discovered analytic geometry which meant that geometrical figures could be expressed as algebraic equations. He believed that all occurrences in nature could be analyzed as matter in motion and also that the total quantity of motion in the universe was constant. =====


 * deductive reasoning-** Created by Descartes, deductive reasoning stems from a theory that is worked through to find a bigger cause. ***Think of a triangle. The top is the small theory that you have, and you gather more and more information to get to a cause for the theory (AKA, the base of the triangle).**


 * //cogito ergo sum// (“I think; therefore, I am”)-** This is called "cartesan dualism," which is the view that ll reality is reduced to mind and matter. It speaks about how God endowed man with reason that could provide the path to the truths of creation.

Cartesian dualism- **A philosophy presented by Descartes, saying that every single thing in the universe can be split into two categories: Mind or matter. Not very substantial on it's own, Cartesian Dualism was incorporated into the scientific method.**

scientific method- means of obtaining knowledge by repeating the same experiment multiple times. this method allowed reality to be the answer and not just stop there. Instead of just taking someone's word for a discovery, scientists now began to repeat experiments to secure or reveal faulty findings. This lead to the outbreak of the scientific revolution and was the main backbone of science. Isaac Newton- **The father of modern physics, Isaac Newton wrote possibly the 3 most important laws governing physics. Born just one year after Galileo's death, he brought together the experimental and theoretical sides of science. isaac newtons greatest discoveries were involving mathematics and science. his laws not only helped us to understand the universe, but also gave the future scientists the tools to discover how to enter space.**

principle of universal gravitation- **Newtons most important law, the Law of universal gravitation, states that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to an objects mass and the space between them.**

//Principia,// 1687 : "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"-**Newtons most famous piece, //Principia/ Mathematical Principle of Natural Philosophy,//brought together the laws of Copernicus and Kepler as well as the physics of Galileo in order to lay out his 3 laws of physics. Equal and opposite, F=MA, Object in motion stays in motion.**

Royal Society- a educated society for science based out of london.

Enlightenment- **European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas concerning God, reason, nature, and man were studied which led to revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. **

====**Deism-** Belief in the existence of a supreme being, specifically of a creator who does not intervene in the universe. deism is not a specific religion but rather a perspective on the nature of god. deists believe that the creater god does exist, but after the motions of the universe were set in place he retreated, having no further interaction with the created universe or the people within it.====

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 * John Locke, //Two Treatises of Civil Government-//**


 * tabula rasa-** Created by John Locke, this means "blank slate," which says that each and every individual is born with a blank slate to build their emotions and decisions on. The decisions that you make in your life will influence you and this "blank slate" will reflect your personality.

philosophes- simply, French philosophers. They made it their goal to understand life and how it worked and its effects on other components of life. They shaped the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution, with most other philosophers basing their ideas on the French philosophes. Their biggest achievement was writting the //Encyclopedia//: a collection of 17 volumes on anything and everything.

Voltaire- Francois Marie Arouet, probably considered the most influential philosopher of them all. He was a reformer, not a revolutionary, like most. Voltaire wrote various works praising England and combined science and reason into his writing. Like many philosophers, he hated religious intolerance. He believed in a deistic God.

Baron de Montesquieu, //Spirit of Laws:// a work of literature, written by Montesquieu, on political theory and made its way to the band books list. in the book, he identifies three ways of political sytems. monarchical, despotic, and republican. he believes in liberty and separation of powers.

checks and balances- A system of natural political hostility toward countries as they become more powerful. This ensured that no one country would be able to become powerful enough to control all of Europe.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)- Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism of French expression. Neurotic and Paranoid. Believed that all philosophes were plotting against him. Thought that women were corrupting politics and society and believed their roles in society should stay passive and in the house. Mostly associated with child psychology/education now.

//Social Contract,// 1762 - Written by Rousseau, gives a guide on how to set up an well organized political community.

General will- Sacred and Absolute, control of your own fate, need to replace the monarch holding sovereign power over the citizens general will.

“noble savage” - The glorification of the Noble savage is a dominant theme of Romantic writings of the 18th and 19th century, especially in the works of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

Denis Diderot, //The Encyclopedia - wrote and finished the first published encyclopedia: volume I for the goal of "changing the general way of thinking" in society. Shortly after published, the work was banned and in 1756 all volumes were published that they were working on, nevertheless. Basically, it sums up the new world view of the enlightenment.//

Wrote //On Crimes and Punishment// (1764)-

Francois Quesnay- French economist known for publishing the "Tableau économique" in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats.

//physiocrats-// a follower of Quesnay's doctrines of government, believing that the inherent natural order governing society was based on land and its natural products as the only true form of wealth

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations (1727-1790)- Adam Smith was one of the most well-known economic philosophes of the enlightenment. He believed in an economy and government with little government interference and restrictions. Smith created the ideas of the invisible hand, economic liberalism, and the duties of government. In the //Wealth of Nations//, Smith criticized guilds for the restrictions on the economy, advocated free competition in business, and fair and just treatment to consumers.

salon movement: Wealthy and influential women started to host parties in which the elite were invited. At these 'salons', a wide variety of subjects were discussed. Almost any question was acceptable. This helped spread and ferment new and upcoming ideas about many different topics.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): Mary Wollstonecraft was a feminist, she believed that women should have the same education rights as men. Though she believed that men and women should be equal in a sense she also believed that women should stay home to educate the children and the next generation.

Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach- a French-German author, philosopher, encyclopedist and a prominent figure in the French Enlightenment. In his philosophical writings he developed deterministic and materialistic metaphysics which grounded his polemics against organized religion and his utilitarian ethical and political theory.

David Hume- He was a very influential Scottish philosopher. He believed that nothing could be proven if we didn't experience it with our own five senses. He also argued that all other species of man are inferior to whites. His work paradoxically undermined the Enlightenment's new sense of reason.

Immanuel Kant- Child of the enlightenment. Believes that enlightenment would follow if thinkers are allowed to print ideas publicly; therefore, he was against government that restricted or punished writers for expressing their ideas publicly.

classical liberalism- a political belief where the primary emphasis is placed on securing the individuals freedom and limiting the power of the state. In the economic form of it, it advocates a respect for private property and free markets.

German pietism- Pietism was a 17th century renewal movement which began in Germany, it's main characteristic deals with individual faith. Though there were separatist aspects withing pietism, the original intent was not to separate from the church but to transform the already existing church from within.

Methodism: the religious beliefs and practices of Methodists characterized by concern with social welfare and public morals.

John Wesley (1703- 1791)- English clergyman and founder of Methodism.

Jansenis:

Enlightened Despotism: Enlightened Despotism is a form of absolutism (despotism) that is influenced by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs embraced the principles of the Enlightenment, especially the emphasis on rationality, which they applied to their territories. This made them tend to allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, and also individuals right to hold private property.

Frederick the Great- king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786; brought Prussia military prestige by winning the War of the Austrian Succession

War of Austrian Succession- The war fought over Austrian lands. It involved Prussia, France, Bavaria, Saxony, aligned against Austria. The war started when Frederick the Great violated the Pragmatic Sanction, an agreement allowing Maria Theresa to succeed the Habsburg throne. After Frederick conquered Silesia, the other powers moved in like vultures. Prussia managed to hold on to Silesia, but the other countries made no gains or losses (besides Austria, which lost Silesia).

Silesia- The rich industrial province of the Habsburg patrimony north of Bohemia & Moravia. Taken by Prussia in 1740, disputed by Austria but retained by Prussia in 1742, and again in 1756. Doubled the size and population of Prussia.

Seven Years’ War- A colonial war which spilled over into Europe. A poorly thought-out and poorly timed defensive alliance with Britain brought Prussia into the conflagration against Austria, France, and Russia. While Prussia held its own valiantly in Europe for the duration of the war, the British at first suffered serious defeats in America before the tide turned with the ascension of Prime Minister William Pitt. Prussia survived, France lost its American colonial empire, and the English crown become immensely indebted. 

“Diplomatic Revolution of 1756”- Treaty of Paris-

“first servant of the state”-

Catherine the Great-

Pugachev Rebellion- Led by the Cossack soldier Emelian Pugachev a serf rebellion against Catherine the Great, he wanted to abolish serfdom, taxes, and army service. The nobles and Catherine won, extended serfdom but freed them from taxes and state service.

Polish partitions- Various acts that split the weak Kingdom of Poland into three pieces that were split among Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

liberum veto- A veto exercised by a single member of a legislative body whose rules require unanimity of the consent. Based on the assumption that all nobility was politically equal, the veto means, in practice, that every bill introduced to the legislative body must be passed unanimously.

Maria Theresa- **Archduchess of Austria and queen of Hungary and Bohemia, wife of the Holy Roman emperor Francis I, and mother of the Holy Roman emperor Joseph II. Upon her accession, the War of the Austrian Succession erupted, challenging her inheritance of the Hapsburg lands. This was followed by two more, the Seven Years’ War and the War of the Bavarian Succession, which further Austrian power. **

Pragmatic Sanction of 1713:**

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 * Joseph II (1780-90)-** Born in March 13, 1741 to Maria Theresa and Francis I, Joseph II was the first ruler of the House of Lorraine. Not only was he son of the renowned Maria Theresa but was also the brother of the famous Marie Antoinette. Joseph II became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire after his father died, and also acquired full control over the Hapsburg dominions after his mother, Maria Theresa, died in 1780.=====