19th+Century+Urban+Society


 * Benthamite:** utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, holding that pleasure is the only good and that the greatest happiness for the greatest number should be the ultimate goal of humans.


 * miasmatic theory**- D iseases were caused by the presence in the air of a miasma, a vapor from decaying matter that was characterised by its foul smell


 * germ theory:** - by Louis Pasteur, the idea that disease was caused by the spreading of living organisms that could be controlled (germs)


 * pasteurization:** - discovered by Louis Pasteur while heating up beer, idea that the growth of living organisms can be suppressed by heat


 * labor aristocracy** - Highly skilled workers such as construction and factory bosses, cabinetmakers jewelers, and printers. About 15% of the working class. Viewed themselves as the leaders of the working class.


 * illegitimacy explosion**- The sharp increase in out-of-wedlock births that occurred in Europe between 1750 and 1850, caused by low wages and the breakdown of community controls.


 * defense mechanism**:- Segments of pyschology (Freud) involving the different ways that humans react to criticisms or failures. These mechanisms involve denial, projection, disposition, and rationalization.


 * thermodynamics**- . A branch of physics concerned with heat and its relation to energy and work, which was built on Issac Newton's laws.


 * organic chemistry:**- The study of compound of carbon. Chemists who study this can create new molecules never before proposed which, if carefully designed, may have important properties for the betterment of the human experience.


 * Michael Faraday**: The English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday, b. Sept. 22, 1791, d. Aug. 25, 1867, is known for his pioneering experiments in electricity and magnetism. Many consider him the greatest experimentalist who ever lived. Several concepts that he derived directly from experiments, such as lines of magnetic force, have become common ideas in modern physics.Faraday's research into electricity and electrolysis was guided by the belief that electricity is only one of the many manifestations of the unified forces of nature, which included heat, light, magnetism, and chemical affinity. Although this idea was erroneous, it led him into the field of electromagnetism, which was still in its infancy.


 * Dmitri Mendeleev**: - developed the periodic table and the periodic laws.


 * positivist method**- French philosopher of the Industrial Era, Auguste Comte, wrote of the new scientific method, or positivist method. This method was methodically looking at the clues and facts to come up with a conclusion. He believed that you could apply this idea to any number of things, uncluding social ideas.


 * Social Darwinism:** - The theory, similar to darwinism or evolutionary theory, in a social context. Social darwinism is the theory that the strong will survive. The theory came about when scientists wanted to apply what they were learning about animals, to modern society.


 * Realism-** Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude," realism is a literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. Although strictly speaking, realism is a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of middle-class life. A reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism.


 * antiseptic principle**: - Created by Joseph Lister,and before his work on antisepsis, wounds were often left open to heal, leading to long recoveries, unsightly scarring, and not infrequently amputation or death due to infection. Lister’s work enabled more wounds to be closed primarily with sutures, drastically reducing healing time, scarring, amputations, and deaths due to infection.


 * separate spheres** - The theory of different "spheres" or worlds for men and women. Separate spheres explains that the genders are different and therefore belong in different places.

[]
 * evolution**- the idea, applied by thinkers in many fields, that stressed gradual change and continous adjustment.


 * urbanization** - Physical growth of a city as a result of rural migration in terms of people moving, and paired together with attempts to do more tasks easier and in less time and less cost, causes urbanization.


 * Edwin Chadwick** - Reformer and one for the commissioners charged with the administration of relief to paupers under Britain's revised Poor Law of 1834. Believed that disease and death caused poverty, and also that the excrement of the outhouses could be carried off by water though sewer at less cost than removing it by hand. Published "Sanitary conditions of the laboring population" in 1842 which proved that disease was caused by the filthy conditions such as lack of drainage sewage and garbage.


 * “sanitary idea”** - Edwin Chadwicks idea that cleaning up all of the waste can and will prevent diesease.


 * Joseph Lister** - Promoted the idea of sterile surgery after the invention of pasteurization by Louis Pasteur. It was a huge jump in medical technology when doctors realized that infection could be reduced by cleaning and disinfecting the wound and tools.


 * Charles Darwin, //On the Origin of Species//** - became the foundation of evolutionary biology. says that living populations change due natural selection.


 * Hebert Spencer, Social Darwinism**-It would be possible to argue that human evolution showed the benefits of cooperation and community. Spencer, and Social Darwinists after him took another view. He believed that society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individuals; and so held that government intervention, ought to be minimal in social and political life.


 * Sigmund Freud** - the father of Psychoanalysis, believed in the Electra and Oedipus Complex, that a daughter is really infatuated with her father and that a son is really infatuated with his mother and is constantly at war with the same gender parent in the fight for approval

-Theory of Relativity []
 * Albert Einstein** -


 * Honoré de Balzac** - A French novelist who was most famous for short stories and novels which depict a panorama life of France after Napoleon.


 * Leo Tolstoy** - Russian realist who developed the theory of history in which he sees free will as an illusion, but yet he still offers a message of love thrust and family values.